The
pomegranate, botanical name
Punica granatum, is a
fruit-bearing
deciduous shrub or small
tree in the family
Lythraceaethat grows between 5 and 8 m (16 and 26 ft) tall.
Etymology[edit]
The name pomegranate derives from
medieval Latin pōmum "apple" and
grānātum "seeded".
[5] Possibly stemming from the old French word for the fruit,
pomme-grenade, the pomegranate was known in early English as "apple of Grenada"—a term which today survives only in
heraldic blazons. This is a folk etymology, confusing the Latin
granatus with the name of the Spanish city of
Granada, which derives from
Arabic.
[6]
Garnet derives from Old French
grenat by
metathesis, from Medieval Latin
granatum as used in a different meaning "of a dark red color". This derivation may have originated from
pomum granatum, describing the color of pomegranate pulp, or from
granum, referring to "red dye,
cochineal".
[7]
The French term for pomegranate,
grenade, has given its name to the military
grenade.
[8]
Description[edit]
A shrub or small tree growing 6 to 10 m (20 to 33 ft) high, the pomegranate has multiple spiny branches and is extremely long-lived, with some specimens in France surviving for 200 years.
[3] P. granatum leaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong, entire, 3–7 cm (1.2–2.8 in) long and 2 cm broad. The
flowers are bright red and 3 cm in diameter, with three to seven petals.
[3] Some fruitless varieties are grown for the flowers alone.
The edible
fruit is a
berry, intermediate in size between a
lemon and a
grapefruit, 5–12 cm (2.0–4.7 in) in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish skin.
[3] The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1400.
[9] Each seed has a surrounding water-laden pulp — the edible
sarcotesta that forms from the seed coat — ranging in color from white to deep red or purple. The seeds are "exarillate", i.e., unlike some other species in the order,
Myrtales, no
aril is present. The sarcotesta of pomegranate seeds consists of
epidermis cells derived from the
integument.
[10] The seeds are embedded in a white, spongy,
astringent membrane.
[3] Pomegranate juice, obtained by compressing the seeds, causes a deep red stain which is difficult to remove.
[11] The
pigmentation of pomegranate juice results from the presence of
anthocyanins and
ellagitannins.
[12]
Cultivation[edit]
P. granatum is grown for its fruit crop, and as
ornamental trees and shrubs in parks and
gardens. Mature specimens can develop sculptural twisted-bark multiple trunks and a distinctive overall form. Pomegranates are
drought-tolerant, and can be grown in dry areas with either a Mediterranean winter rainfall climate or in summer rainfall climates. In wetter areas, they can be prone to root decay from
fungal diseases. They can be tolerant of moderate
frost, down to about −12 °C (10 °F).
[13]
Insect pests of the pomegranate can include the pomegranate butterfly
Virachola isocrates and the leaf-footed bug
Leptoglossus zonatus, and fruit flies and ants are attracted to unharvested ripe fruit.
[14] Pomegranate grows easily from seed, but is commonly propagated from 25 to 50 cm (9.8 to 19.7 in) hardwood cuttings to avoid the genetic variation of seedlings.
Air layering is also an option for propagation, but grafting fails.
[3]
Varieties[edit]
Cultivars[edit]
P. granatum has more than 500 named
cultivars, but evidently has considerable synonymy in which the same
genotype is named differently across regions of the world.
[17]
Several characteristics between pomegranate genotypes vary for identification, consumer preference, preferred use, and marketing, the most important of which are fruit size,
exocarp color (ranging from yellow to purple, with pink and red most common), seed-coat color (ranging from white to red), hardness of seed, maturity, juice content and its acidity, sweetness, and astringency.
[17]
Cultural history[edit]
Although not native to
Korea or
Japan, the pomegranate is widely grown there and many cultivars have been developed. It is widely used for
bonsai because of its flowers and for the unusual twisted bark the older specimens can attain.
[23] The term "balaustine" (
Latin:
balaustinus) is also used for a pomegranate-red color.
[24]
Spanish colonists later introduced the fruit to the
Caribbean and America (
Spanish America), but in the
English colonies, it was less at home: "Don't use the pomegranate inhospitably, a stranger that has come so far to pay his respects to thee," the English
Quaker Peter Collinson wrote to the botanizing
John Bartram in
Philadelphia, 1762. "Plant it against the side of thy house, nail it close to the wall. In this manner it thrives wonderfully with us, and flowers beautifully, and bears fruit this hot year. I have twenty-four on one tree...
Doctor Fothergill says, of all trees this is most
salutiferous to mankind."
[25]
Culinary use[edit]
Fresh pomegranate seeds revealed through peeling
After the pomegranate is opened by scoring it with a knife and breaking it open, the seeds are separated from the
peel and internal white pulp membranes. Separating the seeds is easier in a bowl of water because the seeds sink and the inedible pulp floats. Freezing the entire fruit also makes it easier to separate. Another effective way of quickly harvesting the seeds is to cut the pomegranate in half, score each half of the exterior rind four to six times, hold the pomegranate half over a bowl, and smack the rind with a large spoon. The seeds should eject from the pomegranate directly into the bowl, leaving only a dozen or more deeply embedded seeds to remove.
[27] The entire seed is consumed raw, though the watery, tasty sarcotesta is the desired part. The taste differs depending on the variety or cultivar of pomegranate and its ripeness.
[citation needed]
A bowl of
ash-e anar, a Persian soup made with pomegranate juice
Pomegranate juice can be
sweet or
sour, but most fruits are moderate in taste, with sour notes from the acidic
ellagitanninscontained in the juice.
[12] Pomegranate juice has long been a popular drink in Europe, the Middle East and is now widely distributed in the United States and Canada.
[28]
Grenadine syrup long ago consisted of thickened and sweetened pomegranate juice, now is usually a sales name for a syrup based on various berries, citric acid, and food coloring, mainly used in
cocktail mixing. In Europe,
Bols still manufactures grenadine syrup with pomegranate.
[29] Before tomatoes, a New World fruit, arrived in the Middle East, pomegranate juice,
molasses, and
vinegar were widely used in many Iranian foods, and are still found in traditional recipes such as
fesenjān, a thick sauce made from pomegranate juice and ground walnuts, usually spooned over
duck or other
poultry and rice, and in
ash-e anar (
pomegranate soup).
[30][31]
Pomegranate seeds are used as a spice known as
anardana (from
Persian:
anar + dana, pomegranate + seed), most notably in Indian and
Pakistani cuisine. Dried whole seeds can often be obtained in ethnic Indian subcontinent markets. These seeds are separated from the flesh, dried for 10–15 days, and used as an acidic agent for
chutney and
curry preparation. Ground
anardana is also used, which results in a deeper flavoring in dishes and prevents the seeds from getting stuck in teeth. Seeds of the wild pomegranate variety known as
daru from the
Himalayas are regarded as high quality sources for this spice.
Dried pomegranate seeds, found in some natural specialty food markets, still contain some residual water, maintaining a natural sweet and tart flavor. Dried seeds can be used in several culinary applications, such as
trail mix, granola bars, or as a topping for salad, yogurt, or ice cream.
In the
Caucasus, pomegranate is used mainly for juice.
[32] In
Azerbaijan, a sauce from pomegranate juice
narsharab, (from
Persian:
(a)nar + sharab, lit. "pomegranate wine") is usually served with fish
[33] or
tika kabab. In
Turkey, pomegranate sauce (
Turkish:
nar ekşisi) is used as a salad dressing, to marinate meat, or simply to drink straight. Pomegranate seeds are also used in salads and sometimes as garnish for desserts such as
güllaç.
[34] Pomegranate syrup or
molasses is used in
muhammara, a roasted
red pepper,
walnut, and
garlic spread popular in
Syria and Turkey.
[35]
In
Greece, pomegranate (
Greek:
ρόδι, rodi) is used in many recipes, including
kollivozoumi, a creamy broth made from boiled wheat, pomegranates, and
raisins,
legume salad with wheat and pomegranate, traditional Middle Eastern lamb
kebabs with pomegranate glaze, pomegranate
eggplantrelish, and
avocado-pomegranate dip. Pomegranate is also made into a
liqueur, and as a popular
fruit confectionery used as
ice cream topping, mixed with
yogurt, or spread as
jam on toast. In
Cyprus and Greece, and among the
Greek Orthodox Diaspora, ρόδι (Greek for pomegranate) is used to make
koliva, a mixture of wheat, pomegranate seeds, sugar, almonds, and other seeds served at
memorial services.
[citation needed]
In
Mexico, they are commonly used to adorn the traditional dish
chiles en nogada, representing the red of the
Mexican flag in the dish which evokes the green (poblano pepper), white (
nogada sauce) and red (pomegranate seeds) tricolor.
In traditional medicine[edit]
Nutrition[edit]
Pomegranate seeds are a rich source of
dietary fiber (20% DV) which is entirely contained in the edible seeds. People who choose to discard the seeds forfeit nutritional benefits conveyed by the seed fiber and
micronutrients.
[37]
Research[edit]
The phenolic content of pomegranate juice is adversely affected by processing and
pasteurization techniques.
[41]
Health claims[edit]
Despite limited research data, manufacturers and marketers of pomegranate juice have liberally used results from preliminary research to promote products.
[47] In February 2010, the FDA issued a
Warning Letter to one such manufacturer,
POM Wonderful, for using published literature to make illegal claims of unproven anti-disease benefits.
[48][49][50]
Symbolism[edit]
Ancient Egypt[edit]
Ancient Egyptians regarded the pomegranate as a symbol of prosperity and ambition. According to the
Ebers Papyrus, one of the oldest medical writings from around 1500 BC, Egyptians used the pomegranate for treatment of
tapeworm and other infections.
[51]
Ancient and Modern Greece[edit]
The Greeks were familiar with the fruit far before it was introduced to Rome via
Carthage, and it figures in multiple myths and artworks.
[52]
In Ancient Greek mythology, the pomegranate was known as the "fruit of the dead" and believed to have sprung from the blood of
Adonis.
[51][53]
The myth of
Persephone, the goddess of the
underworld, prominently features the pomegranate. In one version of
Greek mythology, Persephone was kidnapped by
Hades and taken off to live in the underworld as his wife. Her mother,
Demeter (goddess of the harvest), went into mourning for her lost daughter; thus all green things ceased to grow.
Zeus, the highest-ranking of the Greek gods, could not allow the Earth to die, so he commanded Hades to return Persephone. It was the rule of the
Fates that anyone who consumed food or drink in the underworld was doomed to spend eternity there. Persephone had no food, but Hades tricked her into eating six pomegranate seeds while she was still his prisoner, so she was condemned to spend six months in the underworld every year. During these six months, while Persephone sits on the throne of the underworld beside her husband Hades, her mother Demeter mourns and no longer gives fertility to the earth. This was an ancient Greek explanation for the seasons.
[54]
The number of seeds Persephone ate varies, depending on which version of the story is told. The number ranges from three to seven, which accounts for just one barren season if it is just three or four seeds, or two barren seasons (half the year) if she ate six or seven seeds.
[citation needed] Dante Gabriel Rossetti's painting,
Persephona, depicts Persephone holding the fatal fruit.
According to
Carl A. P. Ruck and
Danny Staples, the chambered pomegranate is also a surrogate for the poppy's
narcotic capsule, with its comparable shape and chambered interior.
[55] On a Mycenaean seal illustrated in
Joseph Campbell's
Occidental Mythology (1964), figure 19, the seated Goddess of the double-headed axe (the
labrys) offers three poppy pods in her right hand and supports her breast with her left. She embodies both aspects of the dual goddess, life-giving and death-dealing at once.
The Titan
Orion was represented as "marrying"
Side, a name that in Boeotia means "pomegranate", thus consecrating the primal hunter to the Goddess.
Other Greek dialects call the pomegranate
rhoa; its possible connection with the name of the earth goddess
Rhea, inexplicable in Greek, proved suggestive for the mythographer
Karl Kerenyi, who suggested the consonance might ultimately derive from a deeper,
pre-Indo-European language layer.
[citation needed]
In the 5th century BC,
Polycleitus took ivory and gold to sculpt the seated
Argive Hera in her temple. She held a scepter in one hand and offered a pomegranate, like a "royal
orb", in the other.
[56] "About the pomegranate I must say nothing," whispered the traveller
Pausanias in the 2nd century, "for its story is somewhat of a holy mystery."
[56] In the Orion story, Hera cast pomegranate-
Side (an ancient city in Antalya) into dim
Erebus — "for daring to rival Hera's beauty", which forms the probable point of connection with the older Osiris/Isis story.
[citation needed] Since the ancient Egyptians identified the
Orion constellation in the sky as Sah the "soul of
Osiris", the identification of this section of the myth seems relatively complete.
[original research?] Hera wears, not a wreath nor a tiara nor a diadem, but clearly the
calyx of the pomegranate that has become her serrated crown.
[citation needed] The pomegranate has a calyx shaped like a crown. In Jewish tradition, it has been seen as the original "design" for the proper crown.
[57]
In some artistic depictions, the pomegranate is found in the hand of
Mary, mother of Jesus.
[citation needed]
In modern times, the pomegranate still holds strong symbolic meanings for the Greeks. On important days in the
Greek Orthodoxcalendar, such as the
Presentation of the Virgin Mary and on
Christmas Day, it is traditional to have at the dinner table
polysporia, also known by their ancient name
panspermia, in some regions of Greece. In ancient times, they were offered to
Demeter[citation needed] and to the other gods for fertile land, for the spirits of the dead and in honor of compassionate
Dionysus.
[citation needed] When one buys a new home, it is conventional for a house guest to bring as a first gift a pomegranate, which is placed under/near the
ikonostasi (home altar) of the house, as a symbol of abundance, fertility, and good luck. Pomegranates are also prominent at modern Greek weddings and funerals.
[citation needed] When Greeks commemorate their dead, they make
kollyva as offerings, which consist of boiled wheat, mixed with sugar and decorated with pomegranate. It is also traditional in Greece to break a pomegranate on the ground at weddings and on New Years.
[citation needed] Pomegranate decorations for the home are very common in Greece and sold in most home goods stores.
[60]
Ancient Israel and Judaism[edit]
The pomegranate is mentioned or alluded to in the Bible many times. It is also included in coinage and various types of ancient and modern cultural works.
Some Jewish scholars believe the pomegranate was the
forbidden fruit in the
Garden of Eden.
[64] Additionally, pomegranates are one of the
Seven Species (Hebrew: שבעת המינים,
Shiv'at Ha-Minim) of fruits and grains enumerated in the
Hebrew Bible (
Deuteronomy 8:8) as special products of the
Land of Israel, and the Songs of Solomon contains this quote: "Thy lips are like a thread of scarlet, and thy speech is comely: thy temples are like a piece of a pomegranate within thy locks." (Song of Solomon 4:3).
It is traditional to consume pomegranates on
Rosh Hashana because, with its numerous seeds, it symbolizes fruitfulness.
[64] Also, it is said to have 613 seeds, which corresponds with the
613 commandments of the
Torah.
[65] This particular tradition is referred to in the opening pages of
Ursula Dubosarsky's novel
Theodora's Gift.
[66]
The pomegranate appeared on the ancient coins of Judea, and when not in use, the handles of
Torah scrolls are sometimes covered with decorative silver globes similar in shape to "pomegranates" (
rimmonim).
Pomegranates symbolize the mystical experience in the Jewish mystical tradition, or
kabbalah, with the typical reference being to entering the "garden of pomegranates" or pardes rimonim; this is also the title of a book by the 16th-century mystic
Moses ben Jacob Cordovero.
In European Christian motifs[edit]
Afghanistan[edit]
Pomegranate, a favorite fall and winter fruit in
Afghanistan, has mainly two varieties: one that is sweet and dark red with hard seeds growing in and around
Kandhar province, and the other that has soft seeds with variable color growing in the central/northern region. The largest market for Afghan pomegranates is
India followed by
Pakistan,
Russia,
United Arab Emirates and
Europe.
Armenia[edit]
The pomegranate is one of the main fruits in Armenian culture (alongside apricots and grapes). Its juice is famously used with Armenian food, heritage, or wine. The pomegranate is the symbol of
Armenia and represents fertility, abundance, marriage. It is also a semi-religious icon.
[68][69] For example, the fruit played an integral role in a wedding custom widely practiced in ancient Armenia: a bride was given a pomegranate fruit, which she threw against a wall, breaking it into pieces. Scattered pomegranate seeds ensured the bride future children.
Azerbaijan[edit]
Bangladesh[edit]
The pomegranate is known as "dalim" and "bedana"in
Bengali as well as "anar" and a popular fruit in Bangladesh.
The pomegranate is regarded as a symbol of fertility in China
Introduced to
China during the
Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the pomegranate (
Chinese:
石榴;
pinyin:
shíliu) in olden times was considered an emblem of fertility and numerous progeny. This symbolism is a pun on the Chinese character 子 (
zǐ) which, as well as meaning seed, also means "offspring" thus a fruit containing so many seeds is a sign of fecundity. Pictures of the ripe fruit with the seeds bursting forth were often hung in homes to bestow fertility and bless the dwelling with numerous offspring, an important facet of traditional
Chinese culture.
[76]
Iran and ancient Persia[edit]
Iran is the second largest producer and largest exporter of pomegranates in the world. The fruit's juice and paste have a role in
Iranian cuisine, e.g. chicken,
ghormas, and refreshment bars. Pomegranate skins may be used to stain wool and silk in the carpet industry.
[77]
The Pomegranate Festival is an annual cultural and artistic festival held during October in Tehran,
[citation needed] to exhibit and sell pomegranates, food products, and handicrafts.
In some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (
Hindi:
anār) symbolizes prosperity and fertility, and is associated with both
Bhoomidevi (the earth goddess) and Lord
Ganesha (
the one fond of the many-seeded fruit).
[78][79]
Pakistan[edit]
The pomegranate (known as "anār" in
Urdu) is a popular fruit in
Pakistan. It is grown in Pakistan and is also imported from
Afghanistan.
Gallery[edit]
Pomegranate blossom before petal fall
Pomegranate
sepals and drying
stamens after fertilization and petal fall
Unripened pomegranate fruit on a small tree in India
A mature pomegranate fruit
.jpg)
